101.It'slikeparadisehere.Everythingseemspastel-huedasyoudriveby,withtheradioon.Thecarisstolen,butsolongasthepolicedidn'tseeyou,itwon'tmatter.Youdon'treallyhavetobeanywhereordoanything.Thehotelsandcondosarecomfortableanddiscreet.Ifyouneedmoney,mugsomeone.Thebodymakesasatisfyinglysquishysoundwheny
oukickit.Thereareadventures.Yougettomeetsomeinterestingpeople.Itisacityofgangsters,hustlersandhoneys.It'salltourism,drugs,guns,carsandpersonalservices.Nobodymakesanything,exceptmaybe'icecream',pornandcounterfeitmoney.Everybodybuys,sellsorsteals.ViceCityisaniceplace.Itisnotquiteutopia.Andnorisits
omedarkdystopia.There'snostorylinehere,whereparadiseturnsnasty,inwhichthetellingearlydetailturnsouttobeacluetothenightmarebeneaththesurface,theseveredearofBlueVelvet.Withoutthepossibilityofdystopia,there'snoutopiaeither.TerryEagleton:"Allutopianwritingisalsodystopian,since,likeKant'ssublime,itca
nnothelpremindingusofourmentallimitsintheactofstrivingtogobeyondthem."InViceCitythereisno'beyond'.Asonewouldexpectinahighendlandofvice,itsofferisallinclusive.102.Ingamespace,theverypossibilityofutopiaisforeclosed.Itisnolongerpossibletodescribeashiningcityuponthehill,asifitwereaspecialtopicuntouc
hedbytheeveryday,workadayworld.Nospaceissacred;nospaceisseparate.Noteventhespaceofthepage.Thegamelikeextendsitslineseverywhereandnowhere.Andyet,apuredigitalgamelikeViceCitymightstillperformsomecurious,criticalfunction.Whydosomanychoosetoescapefromtheireverydaygamespaceinto-yetmoregames?Asthemyri
adlinesoftopologyworktheirwayintospace,spacemutates,andjustastheallegoricalmomentchangesfromthetopicaltothetopographictothetopological,sotoodoestheutopianmoment.Onemightthinkgamespaceviabothallegory(doubledasallegorithm)andutopia(mutatedintoatopia).Onerevealswhichcouldbe,theotherannouncingwhatsh
ouldbe,bothshiftingandrealigningasthespacearounduschangeswhatitwouldbe.103.Utopiawasaplacetohide,whereatopiccoulddevelopofitsownaccord,safewithintheboundsofthebook.Therelifecouldbeginagainoutsideofconflict.Utopiasdotheirbesttoexpelviolence.Inautopiantextthereisalwaysabarrierinspace-distantanddif
ficultterrain;orabarrierintime-interveningrevolutionsorCharlesFourier'scyclesofepochs.Therealbarrierisratherthattroublesomelinethatdivideswhatisonthepagefromwhatisoutsideit.FredricJameson:"IbelievethatwecanbeginfromthepropositionthatUtopianspaceisanimaginaryenclavewithinrealsocialspace,inotherwo
rds,thattheverypossibilityofUtopianspaceisitselfaresultofspatialandsocialdifferentiation."Onlyutopia'senclavewasnotimaginary.Itwastangibleandmaterial.Utopiawasaplaceonapagewhereviolenceispushedtothemarginbythepowerofsheerdescription.UtopiansocialistWilliamMorris:"Successinbestingourneighborsisar
oadtorenownnowclosed."104.Utopiarestricteditselftoaparticulartopic-thetopicofthepage,andparticularline,thelineofwriting.(Fig.5)Thebookisaline:atrajectory,aconnectionthroughtimeandspacewithcertainqualities.Amongitsqualitiesisthewayitpartitionsoffthesmoothspaceofthepagefromtheroughandtumbleworldwi
thout.Itrulesofffromtheworldthatspecialtempowheretextplaysitssubtlegamesagainstitsreader.Inautopia,otherlinesofcommunicationareeithernonexistentorsubordinatedtothedescriptivepowerofthetext.UtopiancommunistA.A.Bogdanov:"Theplayswereeithertransmittedfromdistantlargecitiesbymeansofaudiovisualdevice
s,or--moreusually--theywerecinematicreproductionsofplaysperformedlongago,sometimessolongagothattheactorsthemselveswerealreadydead."InthisutopianRedStar,thenewlinesextendandenhancethoseofthetext,ratherthansupercedethem.105.Itisnotthatutopiasalonecreategulags.AdolfEichmannwasnoutopian.Hejustkeptth
etrainsrunningontime-tothecamps.Hiswasaprosaicimagination,makingtopographymatchthetextofhisorders.Thelinesforimplementingthatkindofviolencearetherailwayline,thetelegraphline,andthelineofpunchcardspassingthroughthetabulators-precursorstothedigitalcomputer.HolocausthistorianEdwinBlack:"WhenGermany
wantedtoidentifytheJewsbyname,IBMshowedthemhow."Intopographythereisawholenestofconnections,alongwhichflowsinformation,radiatingfromthetext,callingtheworldtoorder.Therearelinesforplanning,managing,measuring.Topographyisnotonlythemeansforproducingspatialandsocialdifferentiation,butofovercomingit,c
onnectingaspaceofplaceswithaspaceofflows.ThefirstintimationsoftopologyarethoseIBMHolerithtabulatingmachineswhichwillmakespacenotonlysomethingthatcanbedividedandconnectedbyorder,butmeasuredandmanagedbythealgorithm.106.Whenthelinesoftelesthesia-telegraph,telephone,telecommunications-connecttopicsi
ntoatopographicspace,extensivelymappedandstoried,utopiaisrecruitedoutofthepageandcomesouttoplay.Utopiauncoils,spreadingitstendrilsoutofthebook,alongthelinesofthetopographic,intotheworld.Ratherthanaretreatfromtheworld,showinginitspositivecreationofanewworldwhattheactualonebeyonditslinelacks,utopi
abecomessomethingelse.Thebookbecomesanalibiformoreworldlylinesofcommunication,somewiththepowerofanorder:diagrams,memos,reports,telegrams.Utopiabecomespartofsomethinginstrumental,buttherebylosesitspower.Topographiclinesaretherenowtomaketheworldoverbythebook,butintheprocesstheymakethebookoveraswel
l,reducingittojustanotherline.Thesmoothplaneoftheblankpageisthegreen-fieldssitefordelineatingapuretopographyoftheline.Butthatpagecouldbeanypage-apageofanovelorofEichmann'sorders.Utopia'sproblemisnotthatitisselfcontained,butthatitisnotselfcontainedenough.Signsandimagesleakoutofthisbound-paperencl
ave,andarecapturedbyotherpowers,connectedtoflowsalongotherlines.107.Thepoweroftopographyisforeshadowedindystopias.RussellJacoby:"Utopiasseektoemancipatebyenvisioningaworldbasedonnew,neglected,orspurnedideas;dystopiasseektofrightenbyaccentuatingcontemporarytrendsthatthreatenfreedom."Whattheyhavei
ncommonisabeliefinthepowerofthelineofwritingandthebookasatopic,separatefrombutinaprivilegedrelationtotheworld.Utopiasdreamofwhatispossiblewithinthattopicasacritiqueofwhatisbeyondit.Dystopiasarethenightmareofthelossofpowerofthelineofwriting,overcomebyotherlines.JackLondon,GeorgeOrwell,AldousHuxle
y,YevgenyZamyatin-allrecoilfromthelinesthatsupercedethoseofwriting.Dystopianspaycloseattentiontothecontroloftopographybyvariouslinesofanalogsignal-radio,television-threadingtopicstogether,makingspacetransparenttoanallseeingBigBrotherorthecultofFord.108.Theriseofdystopianformsmighthavelesstodowit
htheperniciouspoweroftheutopiantextthanwiththedecliningpowerofthetextingeneralasakindofline.Dystopiantextsarethesignthatthebookhaslostitscapacitytofunctionasaseparatetopic,fromwhichtonegatetheworld.Dystopiasarewriting'sguiltyconscience.Theirsecretutopia-likeWinstonSmith'sdiaryinNineteenEighty-Fo
ur-isstillthebook.Thefailureofutopiamightpointtonothingsomuchastheinadequatepropertiesofthelinesemployedtomakeitoperational.Thepassagefromutopiantodystopiantextschartstheriseandfallofthebookasthelinethatmightnegatethisworldthroughitspositivedescriptionofanotherworld.Thebookgavewaytootherlines,co
urtesyofIBMandotheravatarsofthemilitaryentertainmentcomplex-creatingtopologieswhichcolonizedtheworldindifferentways.Alldystopianwritingisalsoutopian.Itcannothelpremindingitselfofthelimitsofwritingandalostworldofthesovereigntextbeforeotherlinessublimateditspower.109.Topographylearnedtolivewithout
itsutopias,andsettledintoamundaneresignationtothehereandnow.Itassuageditsboredominspecialtimes,specialplaces,wheredifferentrulesapplied.Post-warplaytheoristRogerCaillois'answertotheNaziswasagonmixedwithalea-gamesofchanceandcompetition-eachinitsproperplaceandtimealongsidebutnotaboveeverydaylife.T
hiswouldbetheantidotetotheNazi'stoxicmixofilinxandmimesis-intoxicationandspectacle.Theywouldtakeplaceoutsideoftheuncertaintiesofmundanetimeandspace,inspecialzoneswhereconsistentrulesapply.Suchspacesare'heterotopias'.MichelFoucault:"Theirroleistocreateaspacethatisother,anotherrealspace,asperfect,
asmeticulous,aswellarrangedasoursismessy,ill-constructedandjumbled."Heterotopiasareatsomeremovefromthedullrepetitionofmeaninglesslaborswithincalculablepurposeinworkadaylife.Theyarespacesandtimeswhichliealongotherlines.110.Heterotopianspacesareveryvaried.Eachhasitsownparticularrulesandseasons.The
reareheterotopiasofbarenecessity:prisons,hospitals,schools.Theseneednotconcerngamertheorymuch.Moreinterestingaretheheterotopiasofuselessluxury:galleries,arenas,sportsdomes.Theseinturnsubdivideintoheterotopiasofaestheticplayandofthecalculatedgame.Oneisaspaceofpurequalities;theother-purequantities
.Onecreatesnewvalues;theotherpitsgivenvaluesagainsteachother.Inone,theidealisthatplayisfree;intheother,thatthegameisfair.Inbothheterotopias,thesevalueshavetheirlimits.Oneisanartificeofrankandtheother-ofrankartifice.Outsidetheheterotopiathatmakestheirautonomypossible,theyamounttonothing.111.Heter
otopiasofluxury,ofastrictlyartificialnecessity,containsubdivisionsofplayandgame,existingwithintheirallottedtimesandspaces,whichareinturnsubdivided.Thespaceofplaycontainsseparateworldsofliterature,art,theater,cinema,evenspacesforsexualplay.Thesearenowjust'specialtopics',ruledofffromanylargerambit
ionsforremakingtheworld.Aestheticplaytriedagainandagaintobreakoutofitsheterotopia,totakethederangementofthesensesintothestreets,andagainandagainitfailed.GuyDebord:"ForDadaismsoughttoabolishartwithoutrealizingit,andSurrealismsoughttorealizeartwithoutabolishingit.Thecriticalpositionsinceworkedoutb
ytheSituationistsdemonstratesthattheabolitionandtherealizationofartareinseparableaspectsofasingletranscendenceofart."Itwasnottobe.TheheterotopianspaceoftheartworldabolishedDebord'sSituationistsinsteadbyrealizing'Situationism'entirelywithintheconfinesoftheplaypenofarthistory.113.Heterotopiasofthe
gamehaveneverbeenofmuchinteresttotheory,whosepractitionershavetendedtoviewitastheplaceofthemob.PatKane:"Theworkingclassisalsotheplayingclass--andhasalwaysbeenso."Buttogamertheorywithoutsuchprejudices,heterotopiasofthegamemaybeakeyprecursortogamespace.Amongthemareseparateworldspittingdifferentatt
ributesofbodyandmindintocontestsofskillorluck,frombadmintontobackgammon.Everywayofmeasuringwhatonebodydoesagainstanother-eachfindsitsownspecialheterotopia,itsfield,itscourt,itstrack,itspitch,itsarena.SaysdefrockedSituationistRalphRumney:"Itisnowsport,notpaintingorsculpture,whichdefinesthelimitso
fthehuman,whichoffersasenseorimageofwholeness,ofaphysicalidea,whichnohonestartcannowrepeat."Nor,needoneadd,canwriting.114.Ifaestheticplaysuffersfromenclosurewithinheterotopianmargins;theagonofgamesisleechedoutofitspuredomains.RalphRumneydidn'tcounton24hoursportschannels,internetgambling,realityT
Vgameshows,orthesubtle,corrosiveimpositionofthedigitalgamespaceoneveryaspectoflife.Conceptualartisnomatchforconceptualsport,withitsfantasybaseballteamsanditsperpetualpeptalksurgingeveryonealwaystojustdoit!--where'it'isstrippedofanypossibilitynotmarkedandmeasuredinadvance.Notonlywasaestheticplayn
omatchforthegame,itendsupplayingasubordinaterolewithintheexpansionofthegamebeyondamereheterotopia.Artprovidestheimagesandstoriesformediatingbetweenthegamerandgamespace.Ratherthanactualgamesplayedinactualarenas,artexpandsthereachofthegametoimaginarygamesplayedinapurelydigitalrealm,anywhereandever
ywhere,oneverydesktopandcellphone.115.Foragamertheorythegenealogyofgamespacemightpassthroughtheseheterotopiasofthegamemorethanthoseofplay,andthoseofplaymorethanthoseofnecessity.Theoryhasbeenlookinginallthewrongplaces.Theplaytimeaestheticsoftheavantgardesofartyieldstothe'ludology'ofgamespace.Itwa
sthegeniusofCaillois,thelapsedSurrealist,tograspthis.Intopography,whathecallsalea(chance)andagon(competition)becomethedominantmodes;whathecallsilinxandmimesis-intoxicatingvertigoanddissimulatingspectacle-theminormodes.TheobsessionsoftheSituationists-passivespectacleandactiveinsurrectionagainstit
-formanobsoletecouple,eachdrawingsupportindeclinefromtheother.Theactioniselsewhere.116.Mostoftheavantgardescelebratetransgressive,sublimeplay,eruptingbeyondarule-boundworld.PostSituationistAlbertoIacovoni:"Playarchitecturemustliberatespacefromtopologicalchains."TheOulipogroupdidtheopposite.Itpre
ferredself-imposedrules,elegantastheywerearbitrary,thatmightbeconductivetonewkindsofplay.Ratherthanresistheterotopianmarginality,theyreveledinit.Giventhatthepassagefromtopographictotopologicalspaceeliminateseventhemarginswithinwhichheterotopiasflourished,thismightproveamoreenduringgameplanforgam
ertheory.OulipiannovelistGeorgePerecsawwhatwascoming,inhislate-dystopiancreationofW,atextualislanddevotedonlytototalsport:"ThelifeofanAthleteofWisbutasingle,endless,furiousstriving,apointless,debilitatingpursuitofthatunrealinstantwhentriumphcanbringrest."WhatCailloisseesasawinforcivilizationover
theNazis,Perecseesmoredarkly,asthetriumphofTheTriumphoftheWill.Bothenterthegamertheoryhalloffamebyprovidingitwithitsobject-gamespace-anditscriticalimpetus-thegamer'soddattunementtowardthegame.117.Noutopiapullsatthetopologicalworld,callingitawayfromitself.Evendystopiantextsbecomemarginal,confined
totheplaygroundofliterarygamesmanship.Theoncediscreteheterotopianspacesnolongerco-existwitheverydaylife,ascompensation.Rather,gamespaceseepsintoeverydaylife,movingthroughitspores,transformingitinitsownimage.Ratherthanatimelessutopianidealwherehistoryends,ratherthantheallottedhouroftheheterotopia
n,everydaylifenowpulsesconstantlywithmomentsofunrealizedatopianpromise.Everywhere,allthetime,thegamerconfrontstherivalimpulsesofchanceandcompetition,intoxicationandspectacle,ashomeopathicantidotestoaboredomthatchallengesbeingfromwithin.InViceCityallofCaillois'fourkindsofplay-chanceandcompetition
,intoxicationandspectacle-cometogether.Thedestructionofthespectaclebecomesthespectacleofdestruction;thederangementofthesensesbecomesthearrangementofdrugdeals.InViceCityyouchanceyourarminanagonofallagainstall.118.Noworkofartcanaspiretotranscendthisgamespace,whichhasrealizedartbysuppressingit'samb
itions.YetperhapsagamelikeViceCitycanfunctionasthenegativeofgamespace,itsatopianshadow,inaparalleltothewaythattheverypositivityofautopiaactsasanegationoftheworldoutsideitsbounds.NottheleastofthecharmsofViceCityisthatwhileitappearstobeaboutalifeofcrimeitisthoroughlylawabiding.Itisagameabouttransg
ressioninwhichitisnotpossibletobreaktherules.Onemaysucceedinthegameorfail,butonecannotreallycheat.(Eventhe'cheats'arepartoftherules.)Thisistheatopiandreamofgamespace,wherethelinesaresodense,thedigitalsoomnipresent,thatanyandeveryobjectandsubjectisinplay,andallofspaceisagamespace.Everymovecontrar
ytotherulesofagivengameismerelyamoveintoanothergame.Thegameimaginestopologyperfected.119.Atopiahasonequalityincommonwithutopia-itsaversiontoambiguity.ViceCitymaytakeplaceinadarkworldofgunsanddrugs,buteverymissionproducesanexactandtangiblereward.IfyourmissionistofindpornstarsCandyandMercedes,youd
rivetotherightlocation,dispatchsomebodyguards,chaseCandy'spimp,runhimover,returntopickupCandy,drivetothepizzajoint,collectMercedes,drivethembothtotheStudioanddeliverthemtothedirector.Yourrewardisalwaysexactlyonethousanddollars.Ifutopiathrivesasanarchitectureofqualitativedescription,andbracketsof
fquantitativerelations,atopiarendersalldescriptionsarbitrary.Allthatmattersisthequantitativerelations.Byexcludingrelations,utopiaexcludesviolence;byprivilegingrelations,atopiaappearsasnothingbutviolence,butonlybecauseitexcludesinsteadanycommitmenttostabledescription.Anythingthatmatterscanbetrans
formedinpreciseandrepeatablewaysintosomethingelse.Therelentlessworkingoutofthealgorithmleavesbehindacarnageofsigns,immolatedinthetransformationofonevalueintoanother.120.TherulesofViceCitycallforavastaccumulationofcash,carsandcronies,ofweaponsandrealestate.Mostoftheseactivitiesareoutsidethelaw,bu
tlawisjustpartofalargeralgorithm.Inanycase,thestoryandtheartarearbitrary,meredecoration.Ifinutopia,everythingissubordinatedtoarigorousdescription,amarkingofspacewithsigns,inatopia,nothingmattersbutthetransitiverelationsbetweenvariables.Theartfulsurfacesofthegamearejustawayforthegamertointuitthei
rwaythroughthestepsofthealgorithm.HencetheparadoxofViceCity.Itscriminalworldismeanttobeshockingtotheliteraryorcinematicimagination,wherethereisstilladividinglinebetweenrightandwrong,andwheredescriptionismeanttoactuallydescribesomething.Buttoagamer,itsjustameanstodiscoveranalgorithm.ViceCity'sfil
mnoirworldimpliesnotthatonecanstepbackfromitintothelight,butthatwhiledrivingaroundandaroundinit,onecandiscoverthealgorithmoftowhichgamespacemerelyaspiresandbywhichitistobejudgedinitsentirety.121.InViceCity,theworldexistsalreadymadeoverasacompletegamespace,anatopia.Itisnot'nowhere'(utopia)or'else
where'(heterotopia),but'everywhere'(atopia).Inthegame,spacesallhavethepropertiesrequiredofthemofacertainkindofplay.HiddenonViceCity'sislandsareonehundredsecretpackages.SomeareDowntown,someareinLittleHavana,someinLittleHaiti,someonthegolfcourse,someattheairport.Collectthemallandyoucantradeineveny
ourbestmotorvehiclesfortheultimateride.Orifthatisnotyourpreferredgoal,pickanotherone.Eitherway,thequalitiesofspacealwaysguideyoutoitsrealvalues,whichalwayshaveascore.Thisspaceisperfect,seamless-andbounded,likeThomasMore'sUtopia.Andjustastheutopiapointstowhatislackingbeyondthepage;sotooatopiapoin
tstowhatislacking,beyondthegame.Atopianspaceisarealenclavewithinimaginarysocialspace.Thepossibilityofatopianspaceisaresultoftheimpossibilityofadequateandeffectivespatialandsocialquantificationandcalculation.122.Forquiteoppositereasons,theutopiantextandtheatopiangamebothstandaccusedofincitementst
oviolence.Whatiftheatopiangame,liketheutopianbook,ismerelythescapegoat?Whatifthebookwasmerelyaharmlessrepositoryofthepotentialofthelinethatwasalreadyimprintingitselfontheworld?Whatifthegameismerelyarepositoryofanewpotentialoftheline?Inutopianbooks,thewritingshowstheeverydayworldtransformedasonly
writingcantransformit.Theutopianbookmerelypusheswriting'sabilitiesthefurthest,toapointofalmostcompleteconsistency,withinthespecialtopicofthebook.Theatopiangame,likewise,isthealgorithmicinamorecompleteandconsistentform.Neitherbooknorgameiseverwhollycompleteandconsistent.Theyalwaysnegotiatewithwha
tisbeyondtheirbounds.InViceCityasinMore'sUtopiathereisatravelerwhomediatesbetweenoneworldandanother.Butineithercase,theutopianbookortheatopiangamelacksthepowertotransformstheworld.Butwheresignsandimagesmaybleedofftheutopianpageintotheworld,thealgorithmofthegame,inwhicheachrelationdependsononeano
ther,maynot.Atleastnotyet.123.Itisnotthe'content'ofViceCitywhichmightgiveagamertheoristcausetopause.Itreallycontainsnosex,noviolence,nodrugs,noguns.Thesearemerelytheart-theimagesandstories-viawhichthegamemediatesbetweenwhatiswithinitsownpurelyalgorithmicline,andthelessthanperfecttopologywithinwh
ichthegamerlives.Rather,itistheformofthegameitselfanditscompromiseswithaworldbeyondthatcanworkasthetoposofacriticalgamertheory.Theatopiangame,liketheutopianbook,expresseswhathasthepowertoremaketheworldofitstime,butisnotitselfthatpower.Itisauseless,impotentformofapowerfulline.Whichiswhycriticalth
eorybestbecomesgamertheory,andwhygamertheorybestbecomescritical.Thecriticalattachesitselftowhatpowerisbutnotwhereitis.Itattachesitselftopowerinapowerlessform.Theatopiangameisexactlythesitethathasthisambiguouspropertywhenthingsreachthetopologicallevel,whenthelinesruneverywherethroughspaceandevery
thingiscomingtogetheraspotentialfordigitalcalculation.124.Ingames,asingamespace,somecalculationshappenquickerthanothers.Sometimesthereisamomenttothinkitover,negotiate.Sometimesnot.Whenthereisnotimeforcalculation,thegamermustactonthebasisofacalculationmadeinadvance.There'salwaysabackstory,providi
ngsomedividinglinealongwhichtoweighone'sinterests.It'sneverquiteasgametheoryproperwouldpredict.Thegamerisrarelyanautonomousagent,actingonrationalselfinterest.Ifgametheorywasobjective,rational,abstract;gamertheoryissubjective,intuitive,particular.Ifgametheorystartswiththeselfcontainedagent,likeap
risonerinacell,lookingoutattheworld;gamertheorywondershowtheagencyofthegamercomesintobeingassomethingdistinctinthefirstplace.Inthemidstofbattle,howdoesthegamerdecidewhenandwheretopullthetrigger?Theatopiaofthegameisasafehaveninwhichtoenacttheproblemofbeingasitappearsingamespace,butwithouttheoppre
ssivestakesofone'sownlifeontheline.125.Everydaylifeoncehadtheresourcestoresist,adapt,appropriateorembraceutopianschemes.Itpushedthepromiseandthreatofotherwaysofbeingoffintothecorner,whileitgotonwiththebusinessofwrestingfreedomfromnecessity,buildingaworldinwhichtodwell.Withtheverysuccessofthatlab
orcomesarenewedchallengetoitsresourcefulness.Havingdevelopedatopographyinwhichtodwell,minedandmoldedfromrawpossibilitybycollectivelabor,boredomrisestoanewpitch,andtheheterotopianpastimesbecomemorethanamererecompenseforadulllife.Theybecomethedrivingforceofdevelopmentitself.Outoftheheterotopiasofa
gonandaleaarisetheatopiasofgamespace,viawhichtopologymakesitselfknowntous,asanevermoreintricatematrixofthedigitalline.It'snotthattheory,evenagamertheory,canachieveallthatmuchwhenconfrontedwiththedigitalindifferenceofgamespace.Itmightaspiremerelytodescribewhatbeingnowis.101.It'slikeparadisehere.E
verythingseemspastel-huedasyoudriveby,withtheradioon.Thecarisstolen,butsolongasthepolicedidn'tseeyou,itwon'tmatter.Youdon'treallyhavetobeanywhereordoanything.Thehotelsandcondosarecomfortableanddiscreet.Ifyouneedmoney,mugsomeone.Thebodymakesasatisfyinglysquishysoundwhenyoukickit.Thereareadventure
s.Yougettomeetsomeinterestingpeople.Itisacityofgangsters,hustlersandhoneys.It'salltourism,drugs,guns,carsandpersonalservices.Nobodymakesanything,exceptmaybe'icecream',pornandcounterfeitmoney.Everybodybuys,sellsorsteals.ViceCityisaniceplace.Itisnotquiteutopia.Andnorisitsomedarkdystopia.There'snos
torylinehere,whereparadiseturnsnasty,inwhichthetellingearlydetailturnsouttobeacluetothenightmarebeneaththesurface,theseveredearofBlueVelvet.Withoutthepossibilityofdystopia,there'snoutopiaeither.TerryEagleton:"Allutopianwritingisalsodystopian,since,likeKant'ssublime,itcannothelpremindingusofourme
ntallimitsintheactofstrivingtogobeyondthem."InViceCitythereisno'beyond'.Asonewouldexpectinahighendlandofvice,itsofferisallinclusive.102.Ingamespace,theverypossibilityofutopiaisforeclosed.Itisnolongerpossibletodescribeashiningcityuponthehill,asifitwereaspecialtopicuntouchedbytheeveryday,workadayw
orld.Nospaceissacred;nospaceisseparate.Noteventhespaceofthepage.Thegamelikeextendsitslineseverywhereandnowhere.Andyet,apuredigitalgamelikeViceCitymightstillperformsomecurious,criticalfunction.Whydosomanychoosetoescapefromtheireverydaygamespaceinto-yetmoregames?Asthemyriadlinesoftopologyworktheir
wayintospace,spacemutates,andjustastheallegoricalmomentchangesfromthetopicaltothetopographictothetopological,sotoodoestheutopianmoment.Onemightthinkgamespaceviabothallegory(doubledasallegorithm)andutopia(mutatedintoatopia).Onerevealswhichcouldbe,theotherannouncingwhatshouldbe,bothshiftingandreal
igningasthespacearounduschangeswhatitwouldbe.103.Utopiawasaplacetohide,whereatopiccoulddevelopofitsownaccord,safewithintheboundsofthebook.Therelifecouldbeginagainoutsideofconflict.Utopiasdotheirbesttoexpelviolence.Inautopiantextthereisalwaysabarrierinspace-distantanddifficultterrain;orabarrierin
time-interveningrevolutionsorCharlesFourier'scyclesofepochs.Therealbarrierisratherthattroublesomelinethatdivideswhatisonthepagefromwhatisoutsideit.FredricJameson:"IbelievethatwecanbeginfromthepropositionthatUtopianspaceisanimaginaryenclavewithinrealsocialspace,inotherwords,thattheverypossibility
ofUtopianspaceisitselfaresultofspatialandsocialdifferentiation."Onlyutopia'senclavewasnotimaginary.Itwastangibleandmaterial.Utopiawasaplaceonapagewhereviolenceispushedtothemarginbythepowerofsheerdescription.UtopiansocialistWilliamMorris:"Successinbestingourneighborsisaroadtorenownnowclosed."104.
Utopiarestricteditselftoaparticulartopic-thetopicofthepage,andparticularline,thelineofwriting.(Fig.5)Thebookisaline:atrajectory,aconnectionthroughtimeandspacewithcertainqualities.Amongitsqualitiesisthewayitpartitionsoffthesmoothspaceofthepagefromtheroughandtumbleworldwithout.Itrulesofffromthewor
ldthatspecialtempowheretextplaysitssubtlegamesagainstitsreader.Inautopia,otherlinesofcommunicationareeithernonexistentorsubordinatedtothedescriptivepowerofthetext.UtopiancommunistA.A.Bogdanov:"Theplayswereeithertransmittedfromdistantlargecitiesbymeansofaudiovisualdevices,or--moreusually--theywer
ecinematicreproductionsofplaysperformedlongago,sometimessolongagothattheactorsthemselveswerealreadydead."InthisutopianRedStar,thenewlinesextendandenhancethoseofthetext,ratherthansupercedethem.105.Itisnotthatutopiasalonecreategulags.AdolfEichmannwasnoutopian.Hejustkeptthetrainsrunningontime-tothe
camps.Hiswasaprosaicimagination,makingtopographymatchthetextofhisorders.Thelinesforimplementingthatkindofviolencearetherailwayline,thetelegraphline,andthelineofpunchcardspassingthroughthetabulators-precursorstothedigitalcomputer.HolocausthistorianEdwinBlack:"WhenGermanywantedtoidentifytheJewsbyn
ame,IBMshowedthemhow."Intopographythereisawholenestofconnections,alongwhichflowsinformation,radiatingfromthetext,callingtheworldtoorder.Therearelinesforplanning,managing,measuring.Topographyisnotonlythemeansforproducingspatialandsocialdifferentiation,butofovercomingit,connectingaspaceofplaceswit
haspaceofflows.ThefirstintimationsoftopologyarethoseIBMHolerithtabulatingmachineswhichwillmakespacenotonlysomethingthatcanbedividedandconnectedbyorder,butmeasuredandmanagedbythealgorithm.106.Whenthelinesoftelesthesia-telegraph,telephone,telecommunications-connecttopicsintoatopographicspace,exten
sivelymappedandstoried,utopiaisrecruitedoutofthepageandcomesouttoplay.Utopiauncoils,spreadingitstendrilsoutofthebook,alongthelinesofthetopographic,intotheworld.Ratherthanaretreatfromtheworld,showinginitspositivecreationofanewworldwhattheactualonebeyonditslinelacks,utopiabecomessomethingelse.Theb
ookbecomesanalibiformoreworldlylinesofcommunication,somewiththepowerofanorder:diagrams,memos,reports,telegrams.Utopiabecomespartofsomethinginstrumental,buttherebylosesitspower.Topographiclinesaretherenowtomaketheworldoverbythebook,butintheprocesstheymakethebookoveraswell,reducingittojustanotherl
ine.Thesmoothplaneoftheblankpageisthegreen-fieldssitefordelineatingapuretopographyoftheline.Butthatpagecouldbeanypage-apageofanovelorofEichmann'sorders.Utopia'sproblemisnotthatitisselfcontained,butthatitisnotselfcontainedenough.Signsandimagesleakoutofthisbound-paperenclave,andarecapturedbyotherp
owers,connectedtoflowsalongotherlines.107.Thepoweroftopographyisforeshadowedindystopias.RussellJacoby:"Utopiasseektoemancipatebyenvisioningaworldbasedonnew,neglected,orspurnedideas;dystopiasseektofrightenbyaccentuatingcontemporarytrendsthatthreatenfreedom."Whattheyhaveincommonisabeliefinthepower
ofthelineofwritingandthebookasatopic,separatefrombutinaprivilegedrelationtotheworld.Utopiasdreamofwhatispossiblewithinthattopicasacritiqueofwhatisbeyondit.Dystopiasarethenightmareofthelossofpowerofthelineofwriting,overcomebyotherlines.JackLondon,GeorgeOrwell,AldousHuxley,YevgenyZamyatin-allrecoi
lfromthelinesthatsupercedethoseofwriting.Dystopianspaycloseattentiontothecontroloftopographybyvariouslinesofanalogsignal-radio,television-threadingtopicstogether,makingspacetransparenttoanallseeingBigBrotherorthecultofFord.108.Theriseofdystopianformsmighthavelesstodowiththeperniciouspoweroftheut
opiantextthanwiththedecliningpowerofthetextingeneralasakindofline.Dystopiantextsarethesignthatthebookhaslostitscapacitytofunctionasaseparatetopic,fromwhichtonegatetheworld.Dystopiasarewriting'sguiltyconscience.Theirsecretutopia-likeWinstonSmith'sdiaryinNineteenEighty-Four-isstillthebook.Thefailu
reofutopiamightpointtonothingsomuchastheinadequatepropertiesofthelinesemployedtomakeitoperational.Thepassagefromutopiantodystopiantextschartstheriseandfallofthebookasthelinethatmightnegatethisworldthroughitspositivedescriptionofanotherworld.Thebookgavewaytootherlines,courtesyofIBMandotheravatars
ofthemilitaryentertainmentcomplex-creatingtopologieswhichcolonizedtheworldindifferentways.Alldystopianwritingisalsoutopian.Itcannothelpremindingitselfofthelimitsofwritingandalostworldofthesovereigntextbeforeotherlinessublimateditspower.109.Topographylearnedtolivewithoutitsutopias,andsettledintoa
mundaneresignationtothehereandnow.Itassuageditsboredominspecialtimes,specialplaces,wheredifferentrulesapplied.Post-warplaytheoristRogerCaillois'answertotheNaziswasagonmixedwithalea-gamesofchanceandcompetition-eachinitsproperplaceandtimealongsidebutnotaboveeverydaylife.Thiswouldbetheantidotetothe
Nazi'stoxicmixofilinxandmimesis-intoxicationandspectacle.Theywouldtakeplaceoutsideoftheuncertaintiesofmundanetimeandspace,inspecialzoneswhereconsistentrulesapply.Suchspacesare'heterotopias'.MichelFoucault:"Theirroleistocreateaspacethatisother,anotherrealspace,asperfect,asmeticulous,aswellarrange
dasoursismessy,ill-constructedandjumbled."Heterotopiasareatsomeremovefromthedullrepetitionofmeaninglesslaborswithincalculablepurposeinworkadaylife.Theyarespacesandtimeswhichliealongotherlines.110.Heterotopianspacesareveryvaried.Eachhasitsownparticularrulesandseasons.Thereareheterotopiasofbarenec
essity:prisons,hospitals,schools.Theseneednotconcerngamertheorymuch.Moreinterestingaretheheterotopiasofuselessluxury:galleries,arenas,sportsdomes.Theseinturnsubdivideintoheterotopiasofaestheticplayandofthecalculatedgame.Oneisaspaceofpurequalities;theother-purequantities.Onecreatesnewvalues;theot
herpitsgivenvaluesagainsteachother.Inone,theidealisthatplayisfree;intheother,thatthegameisfair.Inbothheterotopias,thesevalueshavetheirlimits.Oneisanartificeofrankandtheother-ofrankartifice.Outsidetheheterotopiathatmakestheirautonomypossible,theyamounttonothing.111.Heterotopiasofluxury,ofastrictl
yartificialnecessity,containsubdivisionsofplayandgame,existingwithintheirallottedtimesandspaces,whichareinturnsubdivided.Thespaceofplaycontainsseparateworldsofliterature,art,theater,cinema,evenspacesforsexualplay.Thesearenowjust'specialtopics',ruledofffromanylargerambitionsforremakingtheworld.Ae
stheticplaytriedagainandagaintobreakoutofitsheterotopia,totakethederangementofthesensesintothestreets,andagainandagainitfailed.GuyDebord:"ForDadaismsoughttoabolishartwithoutrealizingit,andSurrealismsoughttorealizeartwithoutabolishingit.ThecriticalpositionsinceworkedoutbytheSituationistsdemonstra
testhattheabolitionandtherealizationofartareinseparableaspectsofasingletranscendenceofart."Itwasnottobe.TheheterotopianspaceoftheartworldabolishedDebord'sSituationistsinsteadbyrealizing'Situationism'entirelywithintheconfinesoftheplaypenofarthistory.113.Heterotopiasofthegamehaveneverbeenofmuchint
eresttotheory,whosepractitionershavetendedtoviewitastheplaceofthemob.PatKane:"Theworkingclassisalsotheplayingclass--andhasalwaysbeenso."Buttogamertheorywithoutsuchprejudices,heterotopiasofthegamemaybeakeyprecursortogamespace.Amongthemareseparateworldspittingdifferentattributesofbodyandmindintoco
ntestsofskillorluck,frombadmintontobackgammon.Everywayofmeasuringwhatonebodydoesagainstanother-eachfindsitsownspecialheterotopia,itsfield,itscourt,itstrack,itspitch,itsarena.SaysdefrockedSituationistRalphRumney:"Itisnowsport,notpaintingorsculpture,whichdefinesthelimitsofthehuman,whichoffersasens
eori
mageofwholeness,ofaphysicalidea,whichnohonestartcannowrepeat."Nor,needoneadd,canwriting.114.Ifaestheticplaysuffersfromenclosurewithinheterotopianmargins;theagonofgamesisleechedoutofitspuredomains.RalphRumneydidn'tcounton24hoursportschannels,internetgambling,realityTVgameshows,orthesubtle,cor
rosiveimpositionofthedigitalgamespaceoneveryaspectoflife.Conceptualartisnomatchforconceptualsport,withitsfantasybaseballteamsanditsperpetualpeptalksurgingeveryonealwaystojustdoit!--where'it'isstrippedofanypossibilitynotmarkedandmeasuredinadvance.Notonlywasaestheticplaynomatchforthegame,itendsupp
layingasubordinaterolewithintheexpansionofthegamebeyondamereheterotopia.Artprovidestheimagesandstoriesformediatingbetweenthegamerandgamespace.Ratherthanactualgamesplayedinactualarenas,artexpandsthereachofthegametoimaginarygamesplayedinapurelydigitalrealm,anywhereandeverywhere,oneverydesktopandce
llphone.115.Foragamertheorythegenealogyofgamespacemightpassthroughtheseheterotopiasofthegamemorethanthoseofplay,andthoseofplaymorethanthoseofnecessity.Theoryhasbeenlookinginallthewrongplaces.Theplaytimeaestheticsoftheavantgardesofartyieldstothe'ludology'ofgamespace.ItwasthegeniusofCaillois,thela
psedSurrealist,tograspthis.Intopography,whathecallsalea(chance)andagon(competition)becomethedominantmodes;whathecallsilinxandmimesis-intoxicatingvertigoanddissimulatingspectacle-theminormodes.TheobsessionsoftheSituationists-passivespectacleandactiveinsurrectionagainstit-formanobsoletecouple,each
drawingsupportindeclinefromtheother.Theactioniselsewhere.116.Mostoftheavantgardescelebratetransgressive,sublimeplay,eruptingbeyondarule-boundworld.PostSituationistAlbertoIacovoni:"Playarchitecturemustliberatespacefromtopologicalchains."TheOulipogroupdidtheopposite.Itpreferredself-imposedrules,el
egantastheywerearbitrary,thatmightbeconductivetonewkindsofplay.Ratherthanresistheterotopianmarginality,theyreveledinit.Giventhatthepassagefromtopographictotopologicalspaceeliminateseventhemarginswithinwhichheterotopiasflourished,thismightproveamoreenduringgameplanforgamertheory.OulipiannovelistG
eorgePerecsawwhatwascoming,inhislate-dystopiancreationofW,atextualislanddevotedonlytototalsport:"ThelifeofanAthleteofWisbutasingle,endless,furiousstriving,apointless,debilitatingpursuitofthatunrealinstantwhentriumphcanbringrest."WhatCailloisseesasawinforcivilizationovertheNazis,Perecseesmoredark
ly,asthetriumphofTheTriumphoftheWill.Bothenterthegamertheoryhalloffamebyprovidingitwithitsobject-gamespace-anditscriticalimpetus-thegamer'soddattunementtowardthegame.117.Noutopiapullsatthetopologicalworld,callingitawayfromitself.Evendystopiantextsbecomemarginal,confinedtotheplaygroundofliteraryg
amesmanship.Theoncediscreteheterotopianspacesnolongerco-existwitheverydaylife,ascompensation.Rather,gamespaceseepsintoeverydaylife,movingthroughitspores,transformingitinitsownimage.Ratherthanatimelessutopianidealwherehistoryends,ratherthantheallottedhouroftheheterotopian,everydaylifenowpulsescon
stantlywithmomentsofunrealizedatopianpromise.Everywhere,allthetime,thegamerconfrontstherivalimpulsesofchanceandcompetition,intoxicationandspectacle,ashomeopathicantidotestoaboredomthatchallengesbeingfromwithin.InViceCityallofCaillois'fourkindsofplay-chanceandcompetition,intoxicationandspectacle-
cometogether.Thedestructionofthespectaclebecomesthespectacleofdestruction;thederangementofthesensesbecomesthearrangementofdrugdeals.InViceCityyouchanceyourarminanagonofallagainstall.118.Noworkofartcanaspiretotranscendthisgamespace,whichhasrealizedartbysuppressingit'sambitions.Yetperhapsagamelike
ViceCitycanfunctionasthenegativeofgamespace,itsatopianshadow,inaparalleltothewaythattheverypositivityofautopiaactsasanegationoftheworldoutsideitsbounds.NottheleastofthecharmsofViceCityisthatwhileitappearstobeaboutalifeofcrimeitisthoroughlylawabiding.Itisagameabouttransgressioninwhichitisnotpossi
bletobreaktherules.Onemaysucceedinthegameorfail,butonecannotreallycheat.(Eventhe'cheats'arepartoftherules.)Thisistheatopiandreamofgamespace,wherethelinesaresodense,thedigitalsoomnipresent,thatanyandeveryobjectandsubjectisinplay,andallofspaceisagamespace.Everymovecontrarytotherulesofagivengameism
erelyamoveintoanothergame.Thegameimaginestopologyperfected.119.Atopiahasonequalityincommonwithutopia-itsaversiontoambiguity.ViceCitymaytakeplaceinadarkworldofgunsanddrugs,buteverymissionproducesanexactandtangiblereward.IfyourmissionistofindpornstarsCandyandMercedes,youdrivetotherightlocation,dis
patchsomebodyguards,chaseCandy'spimp,runhimover,returntopickupCandy,drivetothepizzajoint,collectMercedes,drivethembothtotheStudioanddeliverthemtothedirector.Yourrewardisalwaysexactlyonethousanddollars.Ifutopiathrivesasanarchitectureofqualitativedescription,andbracketsoffquantitativerelations,ato
piarendersalldescriptionsarbitrary.Allthatmattersisthequantitativerelations.Byexcludingrelations,utopiaexcludesviolence;byprivilegingrelations,atopiaappearsasnothingbutviolence,butonlybecauseitexcludesinsteadanycommitmenttostabledescription.Anythingthatmatterscanbetransformedinpreciseandrepeatab
lewaysintosomethingelse.Therelentlessworkingoutofthealgorithmleavesbehindacarnageofsigns,immolatedinthetransformationofonevalueintoanother.120.TherulesofViceCitycallforavastaccumulationofcash,carsandcronies,ofweaponsandrealestate.Mostoftheseactivitiesareoutsidethelaw,butlawisjustpartofalargeralg
orithm.Inanycase,thestoryandtheartarearbitrary,meredecoration.Ifinutopia,everythingissubordinatedtoarigorousdescription,amarkingofspacewithsigns,inatopia,nothingmattersbutthetransitiverelationsbetweenvariables.Theartfulsurfacesofthegamearejustawayforthegamertointuittheirwaythroughthestepsoftheal
gorithm.HencetheparadoxofViceCity.Itscriminalworldismeanttobeshockingtotheliteraryorcinematicimagination,wherethereisstilladividinglinebetweenrightandwrong,andwheredescriptionismeanttoactuallydescribesomething.Buttoagamer,itsjustameanstodiscoveranalgorithm.ViceCity'sfilmnoirworldimpliesnotthaton
ecanstepbackfromitintothelight,butthatwhiledrivingaroundandaroundinit,onecandiscoverthealgorithmoftowhichgamespacemerelyaspiresandbywhichitistobejudgedinitsentirety.121.InViceCity,theworldexistsalreadymadeoverasacompletegamespace,anatopia.Itisnot'nowhere'(utopia)or'elsewhere'(heterotopia),but'ev
erywhere'(atopia).Inthegame,spacesallhavethepropertiesrequiredofthemofacertainkindofplay.HiddenonViceCity'sislandsareonehundredsecretpackages.SomeareDowntown,someareinLittleHavana,someinLittleHaiti,someonthegolfcourse,someattheairport.Collectthemallandyoucantradeinevenyourbestmotorvehiclesforthe
ultimateride.Orifthatisnotyourpreferredgoal,pickanotherone.Eitherway,thequalitiesofspacealwaysguideyoutoitsrealvalues,whichalwayshaveascore.Thisspaceisperfect,seamless-andbounded,likeThomasMore'sUtopia.Andjustastheutopiapointstowhatislackingbeyondthepage;sotooatopiapointstowhatislacking,beyondth
egame.Atopianspaceisarealenclavewithinimaginarysocialspace.Thepossibilityofatopianspaceisaresultoftheimpossibilityofadequateandeffectivespatialandsocialquantificationandcalculation.122.Forquiteoppositereasons,theutopiantextandtheatopiangamebothstandaccusedofincitementstoviolence.Whatiftheatopian
game,liketheutopianbook,ismerelythescapegoat?Whatifthebookwasmerelyaharmlessrepositoryofthepotentialofthelinethatwasalreadyimprintingitselfontheworld?Whatifthegameismerelyarepositoryofanewpotentialoftheline?Inutopianbooks,thewritingshowstheeverydayworldtransformedasonlywritingcantransformit.Theu
topianbookmerelypusheswriting'sabilitiesthefurthest,toapointofalmostcompleteconsistency,withinthespecialtopicofthebook.Theatopiangame,likewise,isthealgorithmicinamorecompleteandconsistentform.Neitherbooknorgameiseverwhollycompleteandconsistent.Theyalwaysnegotiatewithwhatisbeyondtheirbounds.InVic
eCityasinMore'sUtopiathereisatravelerwhomediatesbetweenoneworldandanother.Butineithercase,theutopianbookortheatopiangamelacksthepowertotransformstheworld.Butwheresignsandimagesmaybleedofftheutopianpageintotheworld,thealgorithmofthegame,inwhicheachrelationdependsononeanother,maynot.Atleastnotyet.
123.Itisnotthe'content'ofViceCitywhichmightgiveagamertheoristcausetopause.Itreallycontainsnosex,noviolence,nodrugs,noguns.Thesearemerelytheart-theimagesandstories-viawhichthegamemediatesbetweenwhatiswithinitsownpurelyalgorithmicline,andthelessthanperfecttopologywithinwhichthegamerlives.Rather,it
istheformofthegameitselfanditscompromiseswithaworldbeyondthatcanworkasthetoposofacriticalgamertheory.Theatopiangame,liketheutopianbook,expresseswhathasthepowertoremaketheworldofitstime,butisnotitselfthatpower.Itisauseless,impotentformofapowerfulline.Whichiswhycriticaltheorybestbecomesgamertheory